Until the latter half of the 19th century, Italy had been divided into multiple states and territories. The largest of these included the Kingdoms of Naples and Sicily to the south and the Papal State across central Italy. Formally speaking, and the Republic of Venice notwithstanding, the majority of northern Italy belonged to the Holy Roman Empire - although the emperor held limited practical sway.
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It was during the imperial reign of Charles VI that the dukes of Savoy were awarded the title of kings. Along the eastern border of the Savoy state lay the duchy of Milan. Following the end of the lineage of the Sforza family who had reined until 1535, the duchy was transferred to Emperor Charles V, holder of the Spanish crown. Following the signing of the Treaty of Rastatt in 1714, the duchy passed from its Spanish holders to the Austrian lineage of the Habsburgs. Around the edges of this network of states were a number of smaller territories that could act as buffers between the spheres of influence of the various powers. These included Parma, Piacenza, Modena, and of course Mantua. This latter duchy was seized by Emperor Joseph I and assimilated into the Duchy of Milan in 1708 following the act of treason (a felony) by Ferdinando Carlo Gonzaga Nevers (1652-1708). These Habsburg lands, to which the Grand Duchy of Tuscany was added in 1737, were separated from Austria in practical terms by the Republic of Venice.
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Mantua had been an important transit hub ever since Medieval times. While it was not a major crossroads, the city was well protected, and located close to important east-west and north-south routes. The Via Claudia Augusta, which had connected Italy with southern Germany since the days of antiquity, passed from Trento, through Verona and across the Po at Ostiglia, a mere 30 km east of Mantua. From there, the road continued south to Bologna. The east to west route included the Via Postumia, which crossed the aforementioned road near Verona. The map published by Woodman and Mutlow in 1791 on the basis of Thomas Martyn’s guidebook (1) shows Mantua at the crossroads of a dense network of roads on the east-west axis (from Milan and Cremona, the Via Marcaria reached Sanguinetto and continued on to Padua (2)), as well as two routes that went from south to north, passing through Parma and Bologna, merging at Governolo and Borgoforte - near Mantua - then carrying on towards Lake Garda (3).
From 8 April, 1851, the city was also connected to Verona through the “Kaiser Ferdinand” railway.
Holding the fortress of Mantua was a key strategic linchpin for the Habsburg lands in northern Italy. The territory to the south of Lake Garda does not generally present significant obstacles to troop movement, however it becomes trickier in the area along the Mincio river and the Adige further to the east; the Po to the south poses a similar physical barrier that is not easy to overcome.
The four fortresses that were collectively known as the Quadrilatero - Mantua, Peschiera, Verona and Legnano - held a dominant position in the area. The Austrian army used this area as a secure base in which to gather its troops while it planned its next steps. This is why the fortresses of Mantua and Peschiera remained under the control of the Habsburg monarchy as an unequivocal condition of the Treaty of Zurich on 10 November, 1859, when the rest of Lombardy was ceded to the French.
Unlike in the 18th century, the Austrians saw their territories in northern Italy as primarily a strategic military interest, as defensive bulwarks. It is easy to understand the underlying cause of the tension between the Austrian ruling powers and the aforementioned Italians, whose own local interests were scarsely taken into consideration. (5)
As mentioned above, the Mincio posed a physical barrier. In practice however, it was easily traversed by means of any one of a number of bridges. During the conflicts that took place in the 18th century, these routes were exploited by Sardinian troops to penetrate into the central area between the four strongholds of the Quadrilatero. (6)
Mantua’s location did not make it an ideally located obstacle for these threats, but an entrenched army placed there could nonetheless represent a significant threat to the flanks of any advancing troops.
Taking into consideration the military conflicts Mantua and the other strongholds of the Quadrilatero were involved in during the 19th century, it is important to note that the communication between the fortifications and the operational movements of Austrian troops was highly effective. General Guido Barbetta noted this when he wrote: “It is hard not to be impressed by the capabilities demonstrated by the Austrians, making highly structured plans, but also following the prescriptions of an advanced doctrine and exceptional capabilities, a defensive organisation fully adapted to the situation and the available financial resources, suited to the specific conditions of the terrain and making the best use of them, providing the mobile units all the time they needed to deploy and maneuver, and ensuring the long-term durability of its efficiency even if breached in a few areas.” (7)
The close bond with the water was a matter of great importance for Mantua. Visiting the city in July 1729, Montesquieu described his journey thus: «Mantoue est une seconde Venise. Elle est entourée par trois lacs. [...] Le côté de midi n’est pas entouré du lac, mais seulement par un fossé, où l’on fait couler les eaux. Mais, quand on en veut, on jette là les eaux du lac, et on fait un lac par inundation». (8)
This island arrangement (or group of islands, to be precise) between the branches of the Mincio was a deliberate process created by artificially diverting the river’s flow during the Late Middle Ages.
The engineer Alberto Pitentino built the Ponte dei Mulini (“Mill Bridge”) in the late 12th century, which was used to divert the Mincio to the north of the city, creating the first of Mantua’s three lakes, Lago Superiore. (9)
Before this diversion, the Pradella (Belfiore) dam was used to divert the river to the south of the city through the Cerese dam, creating a lake that was known by the name Lago di Paiolo.
Mantua could therefore not be conquered through military might, as the troops required to surround the entire city would have had to form such a wide arc. The path to success in besieging a city lies in its defensive capabilities being compromised by famine or disease.
This advantageous natural position was reinforced over time by a ring of fortifications. The northern entrance to the city, reached through the Ponte dei Mulini and the Ponte di San Giorgio, was protected by the castle of San Giorgio from the 16th century onwards.
To the south of the city was the so-called “Serraglio”, a more-or-less trapeze-shaped area bordered by lakes, the Mincio and the Po rivers, and the Osone canal to the west.
To secure this area, a series of fortresses were constructed in the Medieval period to impede enemy advances on Mantua from the south. (10)
The area also suffered from more general issues with the balance of its water flow. On the one hand, the Mincio flooded on a regular basis, while on the other, long droughts turned the Paiolo valley region into a disease-infested swamp. The solution was the sluice constructed at Governolo, where the Mincio meets the Po, rebuilt starting in 1609 by the engineer Gabriele Bertazzolo (1570-1626).
The Serraglio was the site of numerous clashes from the 14th century onwards. First the lords of Mantua were forced to defend themselves from the forces of the viscount who advanced from the direction of the Po. Then, the area was the site of clashes between French and imperial forces for dominion over northern Italy. This was where the troops spread out during the assault by the imperial army led by Prince Eugene of Savoy (1663-1736) against the French army trapped in Mantua.
Beginning in 1708, after it was folded into the Habsburg Empire, Mantua lost its status as a duchy and became an imperial outpost. In 1737, with the start of the Habsburg reign in Tuscany, the city took on a pivotal role as a “bridge” for the Austrian interests in northern Italy. This role was further enhanced in 1803, when the Habsburg Archduke Ferdinand Karl rose to power in nearby Modena.
This arrangement would only change in 1860, when Tuscany and Modena - already under Habsburg rule at the time - voted to be annexed to the Kingdom of Sardinia.
The transformed importance of Mantua in the 18th century was evident in the increased use of civic property for military purposes. The suppression of various religious communities led to the expropriation of many buildings and their conversion for other purposes. (11) In 1775, for example, the abandoned Olivetani di Santa Maria monastery in Gradaro and the adjacent Santa Paola convent were converted into military stores. The main building of the Sant’Agnese monastery, today the site of the Diocesan Museum, became a barracks. The Capuchin convent, known as Palazzo del Mago, became a large military hospital.
From 1796 to 1797, Mantua was once more at the heart of clashes between Austria and France, at the very beginning of the Napoleonic Wars. Once more, the city was conquered not through might, but rather forced to surrender on 2 February, 1797, following a long siege.
During the military campaign of 1799, having been taken by the French during their previous military victories, it was once more lost, and the stronghold of Mantua fell to imperial Field Marshall Karl Kray (1735-1804) on 27 July, 1799. Kray had carried out a joint attack with Austrian and Russian forces on the Porta Pradella and Porta Cerese gates to the south of the city. Following the Treaty of Lunéville, Mantua was evacuated by the Austrians in 1801, (12) and restored to the Habsburgs only in 1814.
On 23 March, 1848, following the “Five Days of Milan” insurrection, the imperial troops under the command of Field Marshall Radetzky were forced out of Milan and retreated to the Quadrilatero area south of Verona. The short-lived Republic of San Marco was proclaimed on the same day, and the imperial troops withdrew from Venice too. This meant that holding the fortress of Mantua took on particular importance in order to maintain the empire’s control over northern Italy. (13) The commander of the fortress, General of the Cavalry Karl von Gorzkowski (1778-1860), demonstrated exceptional capabilities in holding the city of Mantua and bringing in reinforcements.
At the same time, anticipating a siege, the Paiolo valley was flooded, making the city an island once more. On 19 April, 1848, the first outliers of the Piemontese army showed up in front of the south-eastern walls of the city of Mantua. The main force of the besieging army was located in Curtatone, and their troops targeted the fort of Belfiore.
In two skirmishes near Governolo on 24 April and 18 July, the Piemontese army was able to counter the threat to its right flank by an imperial force. The imperial forces met with success to the north of the city, and as a result the siege was broken on 27 July, 1848.
While the fortress of Mantua was not directly involved in the fighting in the War of 1859, it is worth noting that the most important role played by the garrison stationed there was in ensuring the safety of the road from Borgoforte to Modena. It was only after the defeat to the Austrians at Magenta on 4 June, 1859, that a defensive structure was employed that saw direct military action in the area around the fort of Belfiore.
To the south-east, the imperial troops felt sufficiently well protected within the fort of Pietole, constructed in 1802. From 5 June, the Paiolo valley was flooded once more. In early July, the French troops had already reached Goito, but the Treaty of Villafranca, signed on 11 July, 1859, prevented any further clashes. (14)
In the War of 1866 (also known as the Third Italian War of Independence) that followed, the fortress of Mantua was employed exclusively for safety and storage. A planned attack by the Italian military was limited to a bombardment of the bridgehead at Borgoforte. (15)
With an agreement signed between Austria and France on 24 August, 1866, the Austrians withdrew from Mantua and Veneto, with the latter’s union with the Kingdom of Italy accepted by its imperial counterparts.
On 7 October, the Italian army entered the city. With the referendum held on 4 November, 1866, Mantua was annexed into the Kingdom of Italy and the fortress of Virgil’s city lost its strategic importance.
Notes*
(1) Illustration in Attilio Brilli, Il viaggio in Italia, Milan 2006.
(2) Follows the modern-day SP 10 and SR 10.
(3) Largely follows the modern-day SS 62.
(4) See Article III of the Treaty of Zurich: From the point of intersection of the circumference thus designated with the Mincio, the Frontier will follow the thalweg of the river as far as Le Grazie; will stretch from Le Grazie, in a straight line, to Scorzarolo; will follow the thalweg of the Po as far as Luzzara, beyond which point no change is made in the Boundaries such as they existed before the War.
(5) Josef ARESIN, Das Festungsviereck von Oberitalien, seine Bedeutung für Deutschland, die Schweiz und das Machtgleichgewicht in Europa, Vienna 1860.
(6) From north to South: Monzambano (35 km from Mantua), 8 February 1814, 9 April 1848 and 24 June 1866; Valeggio (26 km from Mantua) 1866; Borghetto (28 km north of Mantua) 30 May 1796; Pozzolo (20 km north of Mantua) 25 December 1800; Goito (19 km from Mantua) 25 December 1800, 8 April 1848.
(7) Guido Barbetta, Il quadrilatero veneto, in Il quadrilatero nella storia militare, politica, economica e sociale dell’Italia risorgimentale, conference proceedings of a conference held in Verona from 13 to 16 October 1966, Verona 1967, p. 45.
(8) “Mantua is a second Venice. It is surrounded by three lakes. [...] To the south it is not surrounded by a lake, but rather by a moat through which the waters flow. Should it be desired, however, it is possible to let the lake’s water flow and create a lake by flooding”. Charles Montesquieu, Voyage en Italie publiés par le baron Albert de Montesquieu, 2, Bordeaux 1896, p. 117.
(9) Carlo Togliani, Idrografia dell’ingens Mincius virgiliano. Dalla Corte di Pietole alla Corte Virgiliana, in Virgilio, ombra gentil, Mantua 2007, p. 64.
(10) These castles are reproduced in a fresco from the 15th century rediscovered in central Mantua in 1981: Carlo PARMIGIANI, Il Serraglio Mantovano. Storia, difese militari ed idrauliche, Mantua 2010, p. 10.
(11) Claudia BONORA, Le difese militari, in Giorgio RUMI, Gianni MEZZANOTTE, Alberto COVA, Mantova e il suo territorio, Milan 1999, pp. 213-241.
(12) Regarding the Italian territory, the Treaty of Lunéville of 9 February, 1801, made reference to the Treaty of Campo Formio of 17 October, 1797; Art. VII, which defined the borders of the newly formed Cisalpine Republic: «Cette république comprend la ci-devant Lombardie autrichienne, […] la ville et forteresse de Mantoue, le Mantouan […]».
(13) Detailed reports on the following events: Eusebio BAVA, Historical report on the military operations led by General Bava, commander of the first armoured corps in Lombardy, Turin 1848, as well as Eduard Stäger von WALDENBURG, Ereignisse in der Festung Mantova während der Revolutionsepoche des Jahres 1848, Vienna 1849.
(14) Various reports have been published on this campaign: Campagne de l’Empereur Napoleon III. en Italie 1859, Paris 1863, as well as Der Krieg in Italien 1859: Nach den Feld-Acten und anderen authentischen Quellen, 3 Bde., Vienna 1872.
(15) Österreichs Kämpfe im Jahr 1866, Bd. 2, Vienna 1868.
